Myanmar
Culture
Name
Burmese
Orientation
Identification. The
name of the country of Burma (or Myanmar, as it is now officially known) is associated
with the dominant ethnic group, the Burmese. Because of the current regime's
lack of legitimacy and poor human rights record, it is common practice outside
the country not to use the name Myanmar. The country fell under British
colonial rule during the nineteenth century. When it became independent as the
Union of Burma in 1948, the country almost immediately entered a state of civil
war as ethnic minorities fought against the Burmese-dominated central
government. Insurgencies by some ethnic groups continue. In 1962, the military
leader Ne Win seized power. His regime sought to isolate the nation and
institute nationalist policies under the label "the Burmese Road to
Socialism." In 1972, the name of the country was changed to the Socialist
Republic of the Union of Burma. After civil unrest in 1988, the military
government changed the name to the Union of Myanmar.
Efforts to create a broadly shared sense of national identity have been
only partly successful because of the regime's lack of legitimacy and tendency
to rely on coercion and threats to secure the allegiance of non-Burmese groups.
The low level of education and poor communications infrastructure also limit
the spread of a national culture.
Location and Geography. The
state has an area of 261,789 square miles (678,034 square kilometers). It is
bordered by Bangladesh to the west, India and China to the north, and Laos and
Thailand to the east. The southern portion faces the Bay of Bengal and the
Andaman Sea. The middle portion centers on the Irrawaddy River, with a large
delta area at its mouth and the area above the delta featuring floodplains.
Most of the population and agricultural lands are found along the
Irrawaddy, which is navigable for about one-thousand miles. The western,
northern, and eastern regions have mountains and high valleys and plateaus. The
western region has the Arakan, Chin, and Naga hills. The most important
geographic feature to the east is the Shan Plateau. The Burmese live primarily
in the central lowlands, while the other ethnic groups live mainly in the
highlands. Under British rule, the political capital was moved from Mandalay in
the center to Rangoon on the eastern edge of the Irrawaddy delta in 1885. That
city was built in 1755 and named Dagon. Rangoon remained the capital after
independence (its name was changed later to Yangon) and continues to be
politically and economically the most important city. Both Rangoon and Mandalay
lie within the area occupied primarily by Burmese peoples, although both cities
have a significant Indian population as a legacy of British rule.
Demography. The
official population figure in 1995 was 44.74 million, but it may range from
41.7 million to 47 million. Linguists have identified 110 distinct
ethnolinguistic groups, and the government recognizes 135 ethnic groups
(referred to as races). The Burmese account for about 68 percent of the
population. Other major ethnic groups include the Shan (about four million),
Karen (about three million), Arakanese or Rakhine (about two million), Chinese
(over one million), Chin (over one million), Wa (about one million), Mon (about
one million), Indians and Bengalis (about one million), Jingpho (about less
than one million), and Palaung (less than one million). With the exception of
the Chinese, Indian, and Belgalis, each minority group occupies a relatively
distinct area.
Linguistic Affiliation. Burmese
is a Tibeto-Burman language whose alphabet is derived from south Indian
scripts. The largest ethnic group that speaks Burmese is the Myanma; there is a
smaller Burmese-speaking ethnic group known as Baramagyi (or Barua). A few
regional dialects of Burmese are associated with subgroups. Closely related
Southern Burmish languages include Arakanese, Intha, and Taungyo (or Tavoyan).
Burmese is the national language. It is spoken as a second language by most
educated members of other ethnic groups, but some of those groups have little
contact with the national language. Many educated urban residents speak English
as a second language, but English is not widely spoken among the population as
a whole. The teaching of English in schools was banned from 1966 to 1980. Shan
is as an important second language for many ethnic groups in Shan State, while
Jingpho is spoken as a second language by many smaller ethnic groups in Kachin
State.
Symbolism. Since
1962, the government has used an array of slogans urging discipline and support
for the regime and the military. The promotion of nationalist sentiments
through the media, public events, and the display of related images is
especially marked on holidays. Among architectural sites with national
symbolism, two of the most important are the archaeological site of the old
capital of Pagan and Shwedagon Pagoda in Rangoon.
History
and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. The
earliest civilizations associated with what is now Burma were the Mon (also
called Taliang) in the south and the Pyu in central Burma which flourished
during the first half of the first millennium. The Mon were strongly influenced
by Indian culture through trade and the Buddhist religion. The Pyu went into
decline in the 800s. Around that time, the ancestors of the Burmese, known as
Mranma, settled to the south of Mandalay. With the former Pyu city of Pagan
(known as Arimadanapura) as his capital, the Burmese ruler Anaw-rahta (ruled
1044–1077) founded the first Burmese kingdom. His conquest of Thaton resulted
in the spread of Theravada Buddhism and the adoption of many aspects of
Indian-inspired Mon art and architecture. The lowland area along the Irrawaddy
River under the control of Pagan often is referred to as "Burma
Proper," since it is the heartland of the region that has been most
securely under Burmese rule. In the late 1200s, Pagan declined and the Burmese
lost control over much of the territory. Over the next few centuries, the
Burmese slowly regained control over portions of lowland Burma from their new
capital of Pegu. However, the Mon remained independent until 1539 and the
Arakanese until 1784, while most of the upland territory occupied by the Shan
was outside their control or only loosely under Burmese domination. The capital
was moved to Ava during the reign of King Tha-lun (1629–1648).
During the reign of Ling Alaung-hpaya (1752–1760), a new dynasty was
founded known as the Kon-baung, and the Burmese began a new period of military
expansion. The Mon were conquered again, Burmese migration into Mon territory
was instituted, and many Mon were resettled in the western Irrawaddy delta.
Burmese migrants were sent to the east to serve as a barrier against the Shan.
Efforts at expansion beyond the lowland area met with little success.
In the early nineteenth century, incursions into border areas to the
west brought Burmese rulers into conflict with the British in India, leading to
the first Anglo-Burmese War in 1824. At the end of the war in 1826, the Burmese
were forced to give up claims to territories in eastern India and a portion of
southern Burma that included territories associated largely with non-Burmese
ethnic groups. Continued poor relations resulted in the loss of the province of
Pegu. This territory became known as Lower Burma. Although foreign relations
improved under the reign of King Min-don (1853–1878), unstable conditions
following his death and Prince Thibaw's overtures to the French led the British
to invade Upper Burma again in 1885. In the face of local resistance that lasted
until 1890, the British established colonial rule over not only the lowland
territory but the Shan states as well. Over the next few decades, the British
tried to bring the other highland areas under their control, but some
territories remained free throughout the colonial period.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the British implemented reforms aimed at
granting eventual self-rule. The proindependence forces were not unified, and
there was infighting between factions. In addition to sporadic anti-British
violence, nationalist sentiments took on a Burmese ethnic tone that resulted in
violent outbursts against local Indians and Chinese. Burma was occupied by the
Japanese during World War II. The British returned toward the end of the war,
but the colony quickly moved toward independence. An independent Union of Burma
was declared in 1948 under Prime Minister U Nu. It was a fragile new nation
beset by political infighting and civil war involving ethnic minorities and
communists backed by China.
National Identity. Before
colonial rule, Burma consisted essentially of the central lowland areas and a
few conquered peoples, with highland peoples only nominally under Burmese
control. The British brought most of the highlands peoples loosely under their
control but allowed highland minorities to retain a good deal of their own
identity. This situation changed after independence as the Burmese-dominated
central government attempted to assert control over the highland peoples.
Despite continued resistance to the central government, those in the lowland
areas and the larger settlements in the highlands have come to share more of a
common national culture. The spread of Burmese language usage is an important
factor in this regard.
Ethnic Relations. The
majority of the people speak Tibeto-Burman languages. Tibeto-Burman speakers in
Burma can be divided into six distinct groups. The Burmish constitute the
largest of these groups by population. Nungish speakers live in upland areas in
Kachin State. The main Baric-speaking group is the Jingpho in Kachin State. The
Kuki-Naga-speaking peoples include a large number of ethnic groups in the
mountains along the border with India and Bangladesh. The Luish group includes
the Kado, who live near the border with the Indian state of Manipur. The Karen
groups live in the hills along the border with Thailand and the southern
lowlands. The Lolo-speaking groups tend to be the most recent immigrants to
Burma; they live in the highlands of Shan and Kachin states.
There are also large numbers of speakers of Austro-Tai languages. The
largest Daic-speaking group is the Shan, who constitute the majority in Shan
State. Smaller, related groups include the Tai Khun, Lue, Tai Nua, and Khamti.
Other Austro-Tai speakers include the Austronesian-speaking Moken and small
groups of Hmong and Mien in Shan State.
Under the British, ethnic minorities generally were able to retain some
autonomy. Negotiations for independence after World War II brought suspicions
among the political leaders of several ethnic minorities that their status
would be undermined. Immediately after independence in 1948, serious divisions
emerged between Burmese and non-Burmese political leaders, who favored a less
unified state. Between 1948 and 1962, armed conflicts broke out between some of
these minority groups and the central government. Although some groups signed
peace accords with the central government in the late 1980s and early 1990s,
others are still engaged in armed conflict. The Wa have signed a peace
agreement but have retained a great deal of autonomy and control of much of the
drug trade in northern Burma.
Military operations in ethnic minority areas and government policies of
forced resettlement and forced labor have dislocated many ethnic groups, and
have caused large numbers of refugees to flee to neighboring countries. At
present there are around three hundred thousand refugees in Thailand,
Bangladesh, and India, mostly from ethnic minorities.
Before independence, Indians were a dominant presence in urban-centered
commercial activities. With the outbreak of World War II, a large number of
Indians left for India before the Japanese occupation. Through the 1950s,
Indians continued to leave in the face of ethnic antagonism and antibusiness
policies.
The Indians remaining in Burma have been treated with suspicion but
have avoided overt opposition to the regime.
Urbanism,
Architecture, and the Use of Space
About 80 percent of the population lives in rural areas. Rangoon has a
population of 4 million, and Mandalay has almost 1 million residents. The
ethnic composition of Rangoon and Mandalay is over-whelmingly Burmese, although
these cities are also where most of the Indian population lives.
Architecture reflects the country's Buddhist and colonial heritage.
Buddhist temples are the most important architectural features throughout the
country. The Buddhist temple serves as a religious school, a community center,
a guest house, a place where the government and other agencies post
information, a site for sports activities, a center for welfare services for
those who are poor and ill, a morgue, and a center for music and dance. It also
carries out economic services such as providing loans and renting lands and
homes. Temples are also important in urban areas. While most temples in central
Burma are Burmese in style, the temples of Shan State tend to have a
distinctive look that is referred to as the Shan style. Temples tend to be
surrounded by small shops that sell sacred and secular items.
The traditional house is made largely of bamboo. Flattened pieces of
bamboo made into large plaited sections are used to make the walls. The floors
are made of bamboo planks or wood. The frame of the house is made of wood, with
hard and durable wood being used for the house posts. Roof coverings are made
of a variety of materials, including thatch made from broad-leafed grass or
palm fronds. Roofs may be covered with tiles, wooden shingles, or zinc sheets.
The front of the house usually has a veranda that is raised a few feet off the
ground. This is the public area where guests are entertained. The center of the
house is the living area for the family. Behind it is a covered cooking area
where rice is stored. Especially in urban areas, these houses are being
replaced by more generic ones made from cement.
Some ethnic minorities have distinctive styles of houses. Many Palaung
traditionally lived in multiple-family houses. Today, these structures are very
rare, and most Palaung live in single-family houses.
Food
and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Rice
is the staple food except among those in highland areas where rice is difficult
to grow. In those areas, rice, millet, sorghum, and corn are the staples. Rice
is accompanied by a raw salad of leaves, fruit, or vegetables; a soup; and
curries of fish, meat, prawns, or eggs. In addition to turmeric and chili,
curries are seasoned with fermented fish or shrimp paste. A variety of
cultivated vegetables and wild greens are eaten as well as bamboo shoots. Meals
often are accompanied by lentils, pickled relishes, and balachaung (made
from fried dry prawns). There are a variety of rice-noodle dishes. After a
meal, it is common to eat fresh fruit.
Burmese traditionally eat a morning meal and an evening meal that is
taken before dark. The meals are served in a large platter or on a low table,
with members of the household sitting on mats. Food is eaten with the fingers,
although sometimes utensils are used. It is common to drink water and eat fruit
after the main meal. Throughout the day people eat betel and smoke tobacco.
Burmese not only drink tea made from dried tea leaves but also eat pickled tea
as a snack. Other snacks include chappatis, fried insects, and Chinese
pastries.
Tea shops are found in every city, town, and large village. These
establishments are important locales for social gathering. Street stalls sell a
variety of foods in the cities and towns. Relatively few restaurants serve
Burmese food. The majority serve Indian or Chinese food, and English food is
served in many hotels and guest houses.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Feasting
and sharing food are an important feature of traditional agricultural and
religious rites. Often special foods are prepared for those occasions. Htamane, which
is served during the rice harvest festival February, is made of glutinous rice
mixed with sesame seeds, peanuts, shredded ginger, and coconut. Alcoholic
beverages are drunk during some secular festivities but are not drunk during
most religious festivals. In urbanized areas, commercial beer and other forms
of alcohol are consumed, while in more remote rural areas, locally made alcohol
is more common. Alcoholic drinks are made from fermented palm juice and a
distilled rice-based solution.
Fermented grain-based alcoholic drinks are more commonly consumed among
highland groups.
Basic Economy. The
economy is dominated by agriculture, which accounts for over 59 percent of the
gross domestic product and employs about two-thirds of the labor force. Rice is
the main product. Production declined after independence but increased during
the late 1970s and early 1980s because of the introduction of high-yielding
varieties, fertilizer, and irrigation. Since that time, production has barely kept
pace with population growth, and Burma, once the world's leading exporter of
rice, is barely able to meet subsistence needs of its own population. It
continues to export some rice to earn foreign exchange.
The production of narcotics from poppies and other sources is
widespread in the northern highlands, and Burma is the world's leading supplier
of opiates.
Land Tenure and Property. In
areas under Burmese rule, land traditionally was held on the basis of service
to the court and could be leased or sold and passed on to one's heirs; it also
could be taken away by the court. In more remote areas, land ownership tended
to be related to continual cultivation and occupancy. Under the British,
private ownership became widespread in the central areas and a system of land
taxation was introduced in which failure to pay property taxes could result in
the loss of land. Before World War II, in the southern delta area absentee
ownership of productive land was widespread. In the central area, agricultural
land tended to be in the hands of small-scale owner-producers. Shortly after
independence, the government passed a land nationalization act that was
intended to turn land owned by wealthy landlords over to those who worked the
land. However, that act was not implemented. A second act passed in 1954 met
with only partial success.
The revolutionary government that seized power in 1962 nationalized the
larger commercial and manufacturing establishments, including those of Indian
traders. This created a large black market economy as people attempted to
circumvent government control of commerce. The revolutionary government
attempted to remove the landlord class and turned all land over to peasant
producers while retaining ultimate ownership for itself. In practice, agricultural
tenancy was not eliminated, and producers had the added burden of state
intervention. After 1988, the government allowed a greater role for the private
sector and foreign investment. While these reforms have allowed greater private
ownership, considerable insecurity remains among those who own property.
Commercial Activities. Since
1992, the military regimes have emphasized self-sufficiency and tried to limit
imports. The largest companies and financial institutions are state-owned, with
the private sector limited mainly to small-scale trading. In recent years,
however, more imported goods, especially from China, have appeared in local
markets and there has been growth in the private sector. The main cities and many
smaller towns have one or more central markets that sell a wide variety of
domestic and imported goods, including clothing and cloth, tobacco, food,
baskets, jewelry, toiletries, and electronic goods. There are also specialized
markets, such as the iron bazaar in Rangoon's Chinatown.
Major Industries. Industrial
production focuses on goods for local consumption, although a handful of
factories produce for exportation. Local industries include textiles and
footwear, wood processing, mining, the production of construction materials,
pharmaceuticals, and fertilizer manufacturing. Although the country has
substantial gem, oil, and natural gas reserves, extraction and processing
capabilities are limited. There is a small tourist industry. There has been a
dramatic growth in the number of hotels built since the introduction of
economic reforms. Travel restrictions and poor infrastructure have concentrated
the tourist industry in a few areas.
Trade. Legal
exports include timber, rice, beans and pulses, fish, garments, precious
stones, and rice. Legal imports include construction materials, plant
equipment, and consumer goods. The difference in the value of imports and
exports is covered in large part by revenue from narcotics and other illegal
exports. Under British colonial rule, Burma was the world's leading exporter of
rice, and rice remains the major legal export. Logging was also important in
the colonial economy, but excessive harvesting and poor forestry management
have resulted in a sharp drop in the availability of teak. China, Thailand, and
India are their main markets for timber, but most wood is exported illegally.
Burma is famous for rubies and jade, but since 1962, a lack of capital and
expertise has hindered that industry. As with timber, most ruby and jade
exports go through illegal channels.
Burma is the world's largest supplier of illegal opiates (opium and
heroin), and the export of amphetamines has increased. Money from the illegal
narcotics trade plays a crucial role in the national economy and in keeping the
regime solvent. Much of the production of illegal narcotics, however, is in the
hands of ethnic rebels in Shan State. Recent peace accords between the
government and some rebel groups have given the regime access to income from
narcotics.
Thailand and India are Burma's primary sources of legal and illegal
imported goods. Small amounts are also imported from other neighboring
countries such as India, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Division of Labor. There
is little specialization in the agricultural sector. Small-scale commercial
trading is done by both men and women, with men being primarily responsible for
the transportation of goods. Ethnic Indians and Chinese are an important
segment in commercial trading, but many Burmese and others are involved in
commercial activities. Few tasks or professions are the monopoly of a single
ethnic group. There are various forms of traditional craft specialization. This
includes making lacquer ware, stone working, fine wood carving, and working
with metal. Modern technical professions such as medicine and engineering are
related to one's level of education and specialized training. Those in the
higher levels of commerce and administration generally come from the families
of prominent members of the regime, and connections with the regime are
important factors in amassing wealth and power.
Social
Stratification
Classes and Castes. Not
only is poverty widespread, there is marked inequality. Essentially, the
society is divided into a tiny elite, a fairly small middle class, and a large
number of very poor people. While there are traditional elites within most of
the ethnic groups and new elites in some groups whose wealth comes from
smuggling, the national elite is overwhelmingly Burmese. In recent years income
from the narcotics trade has been an important source of wealth for members of
the elite. Although some segments of the middle class have prospered from the
economic reforms of the late 1980s, most have not done well and remain poor.
Political
Life
Government. The military
has ruled the country since 1962. In the face of growing opposition to the
government and its socialist policies, Ne Win and President San Yu resigned in
July 1988, and widespread civil unrest followed. General Saw Muang formed a new
military regime known as the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC)
and abolished much of the socialist system. Elections were held for the
485-member People's Assembly in 1990. The opposition National League for
Democracy (NLD) won 396 seats, while the military-backed party won only 10. The
People's Assembly was never convened, and many of its leaders were arrested or
forced into exile. The military began drafting a new constitution in 1992, but
this task has not been completed. The regime changed its name to the State
Peace and Development Council (SPDC) in 1997. The council includes a chairman
and twenty other members. The government formed by the council consists of a
prime minister, two deputy prime ministers, and thirty-seven ministers.
Leadership and Political Officials. Political
leadership revolves around political intrigues and struggles for power within
the military. From 1962 until 1988, General Ne Win was the dominant political
figure, with other officers and their associates jockeying for positions underneath
him. General Than Swe's hold on power since 1988 has been far less absolute.
The officers holding positions in SLORC/SPDC tend to be roughly the same age
and have roughly similar backgrounds and values.
The National League for Democracy is led by Aung San Suu Kyi, the
daughter of the assassinated independence leader Aung San. She is currently
under house arrest in Rangoon. The majority of the small inner circle around
Aung San Suu Kyi are former military officers and associates or followers of Aung
San. Both the regime and its leading opponents therefore form a small political
elite.
There is an ethnic dimension to political office holding and leadership.
The 1948 and 1962 governments were predominantly Burmese in composition and
pursued pro-Burmese policies. Those policies sparked ethnic insurgencies led by
ethnic elites, and the situation deteriorated when the regime passed a law in
1983 that created three tiers of citizenship rights based largely on ethnicity.
At the bottom was a category of "other races" that included
naturalized immigrants, mainly from India and China, whose ancestors arrived during
the colonial period. Those assigned to this tier cannot run for political
office or hold senior government posts. The 1988 regime signed peace accords
with most of the insurgent groups, but national leadership has remained in the
hands of the Burmese.
Social Problems and Control. The
authoritarian military regime has been harsh in its treatment of ethnic
minorities and rules by decree, without a constitution or legislature. The
regime systematically violates human rights and suppresses all forms of opposition.
The judiciary is not independent of the military regime, which appoints
justices to the supreme court. These justices then appoint lower court judges
with the approval of the regime. Prison conditions are harsh and
life-threatening. The regime reinforces its rule with a pervasive security
apparatus led by a military intelligence organization known as the Directorate
of Defense Services Intelligence (DDSI). The regime engages in surveillance of
government employees and private citizens, harassment of political activists,
intimidation, arrest, detention, and physical abuse. The movements and
communications of citizens are monitored, homes are searched without warrants,
and people are forcibly relocated without compensation. There is no provision
for judicial determination of the legality of detention. Before being charged,
detainees rarely have access to legal counsel or their families. Political
detainees have no opportunity to obtain bail, and some are held incommunicado
for long periods. After being charged, detainees rarely have counsel. In ethnic
minority areas, human rights abuses are widespread, including extrajudicial
killings and rape. The regime justifies its actions as being necessary to
maintain order and national unity.
Although the regime officially recognizes the NLD, political rights are
limited. There is virtually no right of assembly or association. Intimidation
of NLD supporters forced the party to close its offices throughout the country.
Opponents of the regime have disappeared and been arrested. Detainees often
face torture, beatings, and other forms of abuse. There is little academic or
religious freedom. Under the 1974 constitution, the regime required religious
organizations to register with it. Religious meetings are monitored, and
religious publications are subject to censorship and control. Buddhist monastic
orders are under the authority of the state-sponsored State Clergy Coordination
Committee. The regime has attempted to promote Buddhism and suppress other
religions in ethnic minority areas. Workers' rights are restricted, unions are
banned, and forced labor for public works and to produce food and other goods
and perform other services for the military is common. Military personnel
routinely confiscate livestock, fuel, food supplies, alcoholic drinks, and
money from civilians.
Military Activity. Since
1962, the military (the Tatmadaw ) has been the dominant
political and economic force, with a large proportion of the population serving
in the armed forces since the 1960s. In 1985, there were an estimated 186,000
men and women in the military; another 73,000 were in the People's Police Force
and 35,000 served in the People's Militia. Reflecting the country's poverty and
international isolation, the military is poorly armed and trained. Direct
spending on the military declined from about 33 percent in the early 1970s to
about 21 percent in 1987, representing less than 4 percent of the gross
domestic product. This decline in personnel and expenditure was reversed in
1988. By 1997, the military had grown to over 350,000 and military spending had
increased greatly. At present, military spending by the government is greater
than nonmilitary spending. Military officers and their families play an
important role in economic affairs outside the formal activities of the
military. This is true both in the formal economy through government economic
entities and in the black market, especially narcotics smuggling. The
military's formal role includes intimidation of the population and waging war
against ethnic insurgents.
Gender
Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Both
men and women do agricultural work, but individual tasks are often
gender-specific. Men prepare the land for planting and sow seeds, and women
transplant rice seedlings. Harvesting is done by both men and women. Men thresh
the rice. Most domestic work is done by women. During ceremonies, however, men
are involved in food preparation. A variety of traditional handicrafts are made
within the household or by specialists. Items of metal, wood, or stone
generally are made by men, and weaving usually is done by women. Pottery,
basketry, plaiting, making lacquerware, and making umbrellas can be done by men
or women. Small-scale market selling and itinerant trading are conducted by
both sexes. Transportation of goods or people by animal, carts, boat, or motor
vehicle is done mainly by men. Religious specialists and traditional curers
generally are male, but sometimes they are female. Spirit mediums can be male
or female. Traditional theatrical and musical performances involve both
genders. Women work mainly in teaching and nursing.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Traditional
society was known for the relatively high status of women. If a couple
divorces, for example, common goods are divided equally and the wife retains
her dowry as well as the proceeds from her commercial activities. However,
military rule has undermined the status of women, especially at the higher
levels of government and commerce. Women, however, play a significant role in
the political opposition to the regime. The higher levels of business are in
the hands of men, but many medium-size and small businesses are run by women.
Marriage,
Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Individuals
usually find their own marriage partners. Arrangements for the marriage may be
made by the parents of sometimes an intermediary is employed. If the parents
oppose the union, often the children elope and later the parents condone the
marriage. When a man asks a woman's parents for their consent, it is common
practice for him to bring a gift for the woman. Wedding ceremonies are
relatively simple except among wealthy families. After speeches by the parents,
members of the families and guests share pickled tea. Polygyny is rare. Far
more common is the practice of wealthy and powerful men having an informal
second wife. Divorce is relatively common and usually involves the couple
ceasing to live together and dividing their property.
Domestic Unit. A
newly married couple may live with the parents of one partner (often the
parents of the wife) but soon establish their own household. The nuclear family
is the primary domestic unit, but it may include extended family members such
as unmarried siblings, widowed parents, or more distant unmarried or widowed
relatives. The husband is nominally the head of the household, but the wife has
considerable authority. Women are responsible for most domestic chores.
Inheritance. Property
generally is divided equally among the children after the parents die.
Kin Groups. Descent
is reckoned bilaterally. Traditionally, there were no family names.
Socialization
Infant Care. Young
children receive a great deal of attention. Newborns are placed in very
carefully made cradles. A mother keeps her baby with her when she leaves the
house. Burmese women carry babies on the hip, while most hill-dwelling peoples
hold them in a sling on the back. Young children are pampered, given
considerable freedom of movement, and allowed to handle virtually anything that
catches their attention. Weaning usually takes place when a child is two to
three years old. Relative or friends may nurse an infant. Adults take a great
deal of interest in children, including those who are not their own.
Child Rearing and Education. Young
children undergo several rites of passage. When a child is a few years old, a
ceremony is held to give the child a name. Children in rural areas grow up
surrounded by the implements that they will use when they grow up and watch
adults performing domestic, agricultural, and artisanal tasks. In the past, all
boys eight to ten years of age would begin attending school in a nearby
Buddhist monastery, where they would learn about Buddhism and be taught to read
and write. Those schools gradually gave way to public schools, but many young men
continue to receive some education in monasteries. Under that system, few women
were educated; their education took place mainly at home as they learned how to
perform domestic tasks.
Modern education began under King Mindon (1853–1878), who built a school
for an Anglican missionary. Under the British, secular education spread and the
country achieved a relatively high level of education. Since 1962, the
educational infrastructure has deteriorated. Today two-thirds to three-quarters
of children drop out of elementary school before the fifth grade. The
curriculum is scrutinized by the military regime, and it often is forbidden to
teach in languages other than Burmese.
Higher Education. There
are forty-five universities and colleges and 154 technical and vocational
schools. There has been a steady erosion of higher education since 1962. After
the civil unrest in 1988, during which many students were involved in
antigovernment activities, there were widespread closures of universities and
colleges. Since that time there has been a repeated cycle of opening and
closing the universities and colleges that has made serious study virtually
impossible. The universities and colleges were closed in 1996, and only a few
were reopened in 2000.
Etiquette
It is considered improper to lose one's temper or show much emotion in
public, but the Burmese are a very friendly and outgoing people. The Burmese
and other Buddhists follow the Buddhist custom of not touching a person on the
head, since spiritually this is considered the highest part of the body.
Patting a child on the head not only is improper but is thought to be dangerous
to the child's well-being. A person should not point the feet at anyone.
Footwear is removed upon entering temple complexes for religious reasons, and
it is polite to remove footwear when entering a house.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. Almost
90 percent of the people are Buddhists, and the proportion is higher among the
Burmese majority. Burmese follow the Theravada form of Buddhism, which is also
known as Hinayana Buddhism and the doctrine of the elders or the small vehicle.
In Theravada Buddhism, it is up to each individual to seek salvation and
achieve nirvana. Buddhism is believed to have been introduced to Burma by
missionaries sent by the Indian emperor Ashoka in the third century B.C.E.
Buddhism is followed by many of the non-Burmese ethnic groups. While
all these groups follow Theravada Buddhism, there are some differences between
the in beliefs and practices and those of the Burmese. Buddhist beliefs and
practices include animistic elements that reflect belief systems predating the
introduction of Buddhism. Among the Burmese, this includes the worship of nats, which
maybe associated with houses, in individuals, and natural features. An
estimated 3 percent of the population, mainly in more isolated areas, who
adhere solely to animistic religious beliefs.
Another 4 percent of the population is Christian (3 percent Baptist and
1 percent Catholic), 4 percent is Muslim, 4 percent is Hindu, and 1 percent is
animist. Christian missionaries began working in the country in the nineteenth
century. They had relatively little success among Buddhists but made numerous
converts among some of the minority groups.
Religious Practitioners. Between
ages of ten and sixteen, most young Burmese men and some young women become
Buddhist novices and go to live in a monastery. While most young men remain at
the monastery for only a short time before returning to the secular life, some
become fully ordained monks. A person who wants to become a monk is expected to
be free of debt and certain diseases, have the permission of his parents or
spouse, agree to follow the disciplinary rules of the monkhood, and not become
involved in secular life. While monks are expected to lead a life of
aestheticism, they perform important functions in the community, especially as
counselors. A variety of religious practitioners are associated with the
animistic beliefs of most Buddhists, including spirit dancers who become
possessed by spirits and may engage in healing and fortune-telling. There are
also astrologers, other types of healers, tattoists with occult knowledge, and
magicians.
Rituals and Holy Places. Thingyan,
the water festival, marks the advent of the new year in mid-April. Buddha images
are washed, and monks are offered alms. It is also marked by dousing people
with water and festive behavior such as dancing, singing, and theatrical
performances. Kason in May celebrates Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and
entrance into nirvana. The day includes the ceremonial watering of banyan trees
to commemorate the banyan tree under which Buddha sat when he attained
enlightenment.
A ceremony is held in July to mark the start of the three-month lenten
period and commemorate Buddha's first sermon. It is at this time that young
males become novices. Lent is a period of spiritual retreat for monks, who
remain in their monasteries. During this time people may not marry. Lent ends
in October.
Over a three-day period, candles, oil lamps, paper lanterns, and
electric bulbs are lit to show how angels lit Buddha's return from heaven. Many
marriages are held at this time. A celebration is held in November to produce
new garments for monks and Buddha images. People come to complete the
production of the cloth within a single day.
Death and the Afterlife. Buddhists
believe that those who die are reborn in a form that is in keeping with the
merit they accumulated while alive. The cycle of death and rebirth is believed
to continue as long as ignorance and craving remain. The cycle can be broken
only through personal wisdom and the elimination of desire. Funerals involve
either burial or cremation. The ceremony includes a procession of monks and
mourners who accompany the coffin to the cemetery or crematorium, with the
monks chanting and performing rites. Funerals for monks tend to be elaborate,
while those who have died a violent death generally are quickly buried with
very little ceremony, since their spirits are believed to linger as malevolent
ghosts.
Medicine
and Health Care
The use of traditional forms of medicine remains important, especially
among the ethnic minorities. Few young people, however, receive training in
these forms of medicine by an aging group of traditional healers and many
traditional practices and the knowledge of traditional remedies are being lost.
Serious health problems are reaching crisis proportions, and nontraditional
health care by the public and private sectors has deteriorated.
Malaria, AIDS, and malnutrition and related diseases are a serious
problem. Intravenous drug use formerly was a problem mainly in the northeast
among ethnic minorities, but since 1988, drug used has spread to the lowlands
and the urban areas inhabited by the Burmese majority. There are only 703
hospitals and 12,464 doctors. These facilities are in very poor condition, and
funding for medical care and training is inadequate.
Secular
Celebrations
The major state holidays are Independence Day (4 January), Union Day
(12 February), Peasants' Day (2 March), Resistance or Armed Forces Day (27
March), May Day or Workers' Day (1 May), Martyr's Day (19 July), and National
Day (late November or early December). These are occasions for the regime to
promote nationalist sentiments, and some are accompanied by festive events. Far
more important for most Burmese are the older celebrations associated with
agriculture and the Buddhist religion.
The
Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Until
the 1880s, the nobility was an important source of support for artists. After
the fall of the monarchy, support came from newly rich merchants and British
colonial officers. From the 1920s to the 1940s, there was relatively little
support from the government or the public. State schools for the fine arts were
opened in Rangoon and Mandalay in 1953, and there was a revival of interest in
traditional art forms. The military regime of 1962 encouraged art forms
supportive of its nationalist and socialist agenda. Since 1988, there has been
little government support.
Literature. The
focus of writing within Burmese society was, and to a large extent still is,
focused on writing for theater performances ( pwe ) and
producing texts relating to Buddhism. In addition, since the nineteenth century
there is a fair amount of popular fiction. There is also some British fiction
from the colonial period that is set in Burma. Among the early British works of
fiction concerned with the Burmese are two novels by H. Fielding: The
Soul of a People (1898) and Thibaw's Queen (1899). By
far the best known British novel set in Burma is George Orwell'sBurmese
Days (1934), a critical examination of British colonial rule.
Graphic Arts. The
graphic arts include temple sculpture in wood, stucco, stone, and wood; temple
mural painting, usually in tempera; other forms of wood carving; ivory carving;
work in bronze, iron, and other metals; jewelry; ceramics; glassware;
lacquerware; textiles and costume; items made of palm and bamboo; and painting
on paper or canvas.
Lacquerware entails the covering of an object made of bamboo or wood
with a liquid made from tree sap. These objects include containers as well as
tables, screens, and carved animal figures. The process preserves, strengthens,
and waterproofs objects and has been developed into a decorative art form. Its
origins are ancient. Pagan is the largest and most important center for
lacquerware. The Government Lacquerware School was established by local artists
in Pagan in 1924. The Shan also have a distinctive lacquerware tradition.
Weaving is a highly developed traditional art form. Among the Burmese,
it reached its highest form in the production of lun-taya acheik cloth.
The technique was brought from Manipur in the eighteenth century, but the
complex motifs are distinctly Burmese. This style of cloth is still woven near
Mandalay for sale to elite Burmese. There are distinctive textile traditions
among the ethnic minorities.
Traditional painting on paper made from tree bark or bamboo pulp is
known as parabaik painting. The earliest known example dates
back to the eighteenth century. Pigments were made of tempera, with gold and
silver inks used for the costumes of nobles and deities. The paintings also
formed folded pages in books. Initially these paintings depicted religious
scenes, court scenes, or astrological charts, medicines, tattoo designs, and
sexual techniques, and the painters were itinerant artists employed by the court.
In the nineteenth century, the court in Mandalay employed full-time artists,
and a system of apprenticeship was put in place. Among the new styles of
painting that emerged after the fall of the monarchy were paintings of happy
families sold to the newly rich. Traditional painting declined in the 1920s as
local patrons and artists became more interested in European styles. A revival
of interest in Burmese themes took place after the 1962 military takeover. The
new regime held an annual painting exhibition to promote select painters. The
exhibitions ended in 1988, but the military regime allowed the fine arts school
to remain open. Most painters today are dependent on sales through a handful of
private galleries that cater largely to resident expatriates. The themes of
newer paintings continue to be Burmese, especially religious paintings and
landscapes.
Performance Arts. Popular
performances often combine music, dance, and drama in a pwe ("show").
These shows take place at fairs, religious festivals, weddings, funerals, and
sporting events. They generally are held at night and can go on all night long.
A pwe typically includes performances based on legends and Buddhist epics;
comedy skits; singing, dancing, and music; and sometimes a puppet show.
Traditional music and dance have been influenced by Thailand.
Traditional instruments played in an ensemble include a circle of drums, a
thirteen-stringed boat-shaped harp, a circle of gongs, a xylophonelike
instrument, an oboelike instrument, a bamboo flute, a bass drum, small cymbals,
and bamboo clappers. Today these traditional instruments are combined with
Western ones, including a guitar. The Kon-baung court employed performers
specializing in recitation, singing, dancing, and acting.
Highly stylized dramatic performances were accompanied by music. There
is also a tradition of popular public performances such as the nebhatkhin (a
pageant depicting the birth of Buddha) and the more secular myai-waing (an
earth-circling performance) conducted by traveling actors and musicians. After
1885, entertainers performed for a new public, and more lively forms of
entertainment were developed, including all-female dance troupes. Western-style
stage plays were introduced at that same time. There was interest in newer
forms of performance in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Such
performances ended with the outbreak of World War II. After of independence,
there was a revival of interest in traditional dance, drama, and music. The
1950s saw a revival of traditional art forms and the emergence of a new form of
modern melodrama called pya-zat . These were modern plays that
rarely dealt with traditional subjects. While secular performance arts now
dominate popular entertainment, the military regime has continued to support
more traditional performances and the fine arts schools still teach traditional
forms of dance and drama, although the audiences consist largely of tourists,
resident expatriates, and members of the ruling elite.
The
State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Training in the physical and social sciences at national institutions
such as Yangon University and Yangon Technical University is very limited.
Since 1962, the social sciences have been almost nonexistent. Some social
science research continues to take place, but most of it focuses on the
relatively distant past. Institutions involved in such work include the Myanmar
Historical Commission, Cultural Institute, Department of Archaeology, and
Religious Affairs Department.
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